Science in the Islamic Civilization

Science in the Islamic Civilization refers to the body of knowledge developed and practiced during the Golden Age of Islam under various dynasties such as the Umayyad Caliphate in Andalusia, the Abbadids in Seville, the Samanids, the Ziyarids, the Buyids in Persia, and the Abbasid Caliphate and beyond, spanning approximately from 786 to 1258 CE. Islamic scientific achievements covered a wide range of fields, especially astronomy, mathematics, and medicine, but also included alchemy, chemistry, botany, agricultural engineering, geography, cartography, ophthalmology, pharmacy, physics, and zoology.

Muslims innovated new sciences that were previously unknown, naming them with Arabic terms such as chemistry (al-kimiya), algebra (al-jabr), and trigonometry (ilm al-muthallathat). From our studies of Islamic scientific heritage, it is evident that Muslim scholars developed the scientific method in research and writing, which was based on experimentation, observation, and deduction. They also incorporated illustrations in scientific books, including drawings of instruments and surgical procedures, as well as detailed geographical and astronomical maps. Muslims pioneered the creation of encyclopedias and scientific dictionaries arranged alphabetically.

The discovery of paper manufacturing and the spread of the scribe craft in the Islamic world greatly facilitated the production and copying of manuscripts. These Arabic manuscripts varied between translations and original compositions. Unlike modern libraries, Islamic libraries during that era were not merely places to store books. Main libraries had departments specifically for translation, copying, and distribution. Translators came from various ethnic backgrounds, fluent in Arabic and their native languages, and their translations were reviewed by Arab scholars to correct linguistic errors. Copyists and scribes were tasked with producing new copies of both ancient and contemporary Arabic scientific books.

The largest libraries were affiliated with major universities and mosques, such as those in Damascus, Baghdad, Cairo, the University of Al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, and the University of Al-Qarawiyyin in Cordoba. These libraries housed thousands of manuscripts across all branches of science. They were accessible for reading and borrowing, allowing readers to borrow any book regardless of its value without needing to provide collateral. As a result, literacy rates were remarkably high during this period. Learning to read and write the Quran was mandatory. In contrast, literacy rates in Europe between the 9th and 12th centuries were over 95%.

The orientalist Adam Metz noted in his book "The Renaissance of Islam" that Europe at that time had only a few libraries, mainly attached to monasteries. History does not record any nation that valued and collected books as passionately as Muslims did during their period of renaissance and prosperity. Almost every household had a library, and wealthy families prided themselves on possessing rare and valuable manuscripts. Some traders traveled to distant lands to acquire copies of rare or new manuscripts. Caliphs and wealthy patrons generously funded the acquisition of new manuscripts.

Detailed Contributions of Islamic Science

Astronomy

Islamic astronomers made significant advancements in observational astronomy, theoretical astronomy, and instrumentation.

• Al-Battani (Albategnius): Improved the precision of existing astronomical measurements, calculated the length of the solar year, and discovered the precession of the equinoxes.
• Al-Zarqali (Arzachel): Developed the Toledan Tables, which were astronomical tables used in Europe for centuries.
• Al-Sufi (Azophi): Compiled the "Book of Fixed Stars," which included detailed descriptions and illustrations of constellations, incorporating corrections to Ptolemy’s work.
• Ulugh Beg: Built a major observatory in Samarkand and created one of the most accurate star catalogs of his time.

Mathematics

Islamic mathematicians made groundbreaking contributions to algebra, geometry, and trigonometry.

• Al-Khwarizmi: Known as the father of algebra, his works introduced the systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations. His book "Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala" gave algebra its name.
• Omar Khayyam: Developed a geometric method for solving cubic equations and contributed to the reform of the Persian calendar.
• Al-Kashi: Made significant contributions to decimal fractions and calculated pi to 16 decimal places. His work "The Key to Arithmetic" was used as a reference in Europe.
• Thabit ibn Qurra: Translated many Greek works and contributed to number theory and geometry.

Medicine

Islamic physicians and scholars were pioneers in medical science, making significant advances in surgery, pharmacology, and medical ethics.

• Ibn Sina (Avicenna): His "Canon of Medicine" was a comprehensive medical encyclopedia that systematized existing medical knowledge and was used in Europe until the 17th century.
• Al-Razi (Rhazes): Authored numerous medical texts, including "Al-Hawi," a vast medical compendium, and was the first to differentiate smallpox from measles.
• Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis): Considered the father of surgery, his book "Kitab al-Tasrif" was an extensive medical encyclopedia that included surgical techniques and instruments.
• Ibn al-Nafis: Discovered the pulmonary circulation of the blood, challenging the views of Galen.

Chemistry and Alchemy

Muslim scientists laid the groundwork for modern chemistry through systematic experimentation and documentation.

• Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber): Often called the father of chemistry, he introduced experimental methods and wrote extensively on chemical processes and apparatus, such as distillation.
• Al-Razi: Classified substances into animal, vegetable, and mineral and described methods for producing acids and alcohols.
• Al-Kindi: Worked on the distillation of oils and the development of perfumes and pharmaceuticals.

Botany and Agricultural Engineering

Islamic scholars made significant contributions to the understanding of plants and agriculture.

• Ibn Bassal: Authored a comprehensive guide on agriculture, detailing crop cultivation, irrigation, and soil management.
• Ibn al-Awwam: Wrote "Kitab al-Filaha" (The Book of Agriculture), which provided extensive information on farming techniques, plant diseases, and soil properties.

Geography and Cartography

Muslim geographers and cartographers expanded the understanding of the world's geography and created detailed maps.

• Al-Idrisi: Created the "Tabula Rogeriana," one of the most advanced world maps of its time, for King Roger II of Sicily.
• Ibn Battuta: Traveled extensively across Africa, Asia, and Europe, documenting his journeys in the "Rihla," which provided valuable geographical and cultural insights.
• Al-Biruni: Wrote extensively on geography, including the study of India, and calculated the Earth's circumference with remarkable accuracy.

Physics and Optics

Islamic physicists made substantial contributions to the understanding of optics and mechanics.

• Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen): Considered the father of optics, his "Book of Optics" systematically studied light and vision, explaining the principles of refraction, reflection, and the functioning of the human eye.
• Al-Biruni: Made significant contributions to mechanics, hydrodynamics, and the study of timekeeping devices.

Scientific Institutions and Libraries

Libraries and Translation Movements

Islamic civilization saw the establishment of numerous libraries and institutions dedicated to the preservation and dissemination of knowledge.

• House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma): Founded in Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, it was a major intellectual center where scholars translated works from Greek, Persian, and Indian sources into Arabic.
• University of al-Qarawiyyin: Founded in 859 CE in Fez, Morocco, it is considered one of the oldest continuously operating educational institutions in the world.
• Dar al-Hikma: Another significant library and research center in Cairo, established during the Fatimid Caliphate.

Role of Scholars and Scribes

• Scholars from various cultural backgrounds worked together in translating, commenting on, and expanding the works of ancient civilizations.
• The introduction of paper from China facilitated the mass production and distribution of books, making knowledge more accessible.

Impact on Europe and the Renaissance

The scientific advancements of the Islamic world were crucial in the transmission of knowledge to Europe, laying the groundwork for the Renaissance.

• Translation Movements: Many Arabic texts were translated into Latin during the 12th century, especially in places like Toledo and Sicily, making the scientific knowledge of the Islamic world accessible to European scholars.
• Influence on European Thinkers: Figures such as Roger Bacon, Leonardo da Vinci, and Copernicus were influenced by the works of Islamic scientists, integrating their findings into their own discoveries.

In conclusion, the Islamic civilization was a beacon of scientific and intellectual progress during the medieval period, contributing significantly to the development of various scientific fields. The achievements of Muslim scholars not only advanced knowledge in their own time but also laid the foundation for future scientific endeavors worldwide.

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